History of Science Summary 3/25/13

Thinking, Knowledge & Science

This week we followed in the footsteps of the ancient Greek philosophers as we pondered these important and timeless questions:

• What is thinking?

• How can we "know"?

We began by defining the differences between inductive and deductive reasoning.  Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories.  An example of inductive reasoning would be: all swans I have seen have been white; therefore all swans are white.  While inductive reasoning is commonly used in science, it is clearly not always logically valid because it is not always accurate to assume that a general principle is correct in specific instances. Deductive reasoning occurs when we move from the more general to the specific, narrowing down a broader spectrum of information to arrive at a specific conclusion.  A classic example of deductive reasoning is the following: All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore Socrates is mortal.  While deductive statements such as this one are perfectly logical, they do rely on the initial premises being correct.  If one or more of the premises is incorrect, the conclusion will obviously be invalid.  Both inductive and deductive approaches are important to the development of science.  Inductive logic is by nature more open-ended and exploratory, often leading us to the relevant questions, whereas deductive logic is generally used to test or confirm hypotheses using the scientific method.

Students then reviewed their Quest workbook pages 32-33 on the definitions of hypothesis, theory, and fact, as these relate to the work and ideas of several of the ancient scientists we have learned about through our reading.  Students should remember that the ideas of these ancient scientists (the Ionians and Democritus) were revolutionary, yet unproved hypotheses chiefly because the ancient Greeks lacked the modern technology and means to prove or disprove their ideas.  It would be many hundreds of years before science could develop these theories further. 

And so, at this point in history, philosophers turned instead to the study of reason.

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Plato and Aristotle

We looked to two of the greatest minds in all of history - Plato and Aristotle - as we continued our discussion on thinking by comparing the vastly different approach each philosopher took toward answering the question: What is truth and how can we find it?  (Quest workbook page 36).

According to Plato:

... reality is known only through the mind. There is a higher world, independent of the world we may experience through our senses. Because the senses may deceive us, it is necessary that this higher world exist, a world of Ideas or Forms -- of what is unchanging, absolute and universal. In other words, although there may be something from the phenomenal world which we consider beautiful or good or just, Plato postulates that there is a higher unchanging reality of the beautiful, goodness or justice. To live in accordance with these universal standards is the good life -- to grasp the Forms is to grasp ultimate truth.

(from The History Guide)

Aristotle, Plato's student, argued that knowledge and universal principles come from experience.  As a great observer and synthesizer of information, Aristotle attempted to create one theory to classify all knowledge.  His work ranged over the fields of biology, chemistry, astronomy, light, vision, and the study of logic.  And although his geocentric (earth-centered) cosmology was flawed, his ideas and massive body of work set the backdrop for all future developments in modern science.

For a brief overview of the contributions of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, view this. (okay, so it's mostly the Jack Johnson background music that really makes it worthwhile!).

And...An Impromptu Debate

We concluded class with a mini debate which required students to apply the types of thinking and reasoning skills we had been discussing.  The class split into two teams (boys vs. girls) and took up positions on the intriguing question: Will technology ultimately save or destroy the earth?

With only about fifteen minutes to prepare, students did a good job of working together and crafting some solid points for argument.  Unfortunately we did not have enough time to fully develop the topic and support and defend positions, but it was a worthwhile thinking exercise and introduction to debate.  We will hope to continue the dialogue and debate format in future classes.

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Homework...

For next week, students should read Chapters 13 and 14 in the text and review all material from Chapters 1-13 in preparation for a rousing game of Jeopardy!  (prizes to be awarded to those that study hard!)

Have a great weekend!